CLAUSE
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and
a predicate.
There are two clauses namely
the independent clause (main clause) and dependent clause
(subordinate clause).
The independent clause makes
sense all by itself.
Education is necessary in
today’s world. (Independent clause)
Dependent clause starts
with a word that makes it sound incomplete.
The dependent clause doesn’t
sound complete.
•
Because
education is necessary in today’s world. (Dependent clause)
Clause is made up out of elements; each expresses
particular kind of meaning.
There five elements:
1. Subject (S)
identifies the theme or topic of the clause.
2. Verb (V) express:
an action, sensations, or state of being.
3. Object (O):
who/what has been directly affected by the action of the verb.
4. Complement ( C )
gives further information about another clause element.
5. Adverb (A) informs
about the situation, such as time of an action
90% of clause: S+V+O
pattern.
There are three types of
dependent clause: adjective, adverb, and noun dependent clauses.
Dependent clauses consist
of subject and predicate, must be thought as one word, an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.
NOUN CLAUSE
•
Noun dependent
clause, noun , noun phrase
and the gerund all is the
same
Their functions are as
subject, DO, IO, Predicate Noun, object of preposition
Noun clauses use some of the
same introductory words as adjective and adverb clause use.
When
where whose what that which
Whenever Who Whoever Whom Whomever
Whoever wants a degree must study. (NC as subject)
English is what I like
best in school. (NC as a predicate noun)
We have explained what a
noun clause is. (NC as DO)
The teacher will give whoever
passes a prize. (NC as IO)
Grades are given by whomever
teaches the class. (NC as Object of preposition)
RELATIVE CLAUSES
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Adjective clause, adjective,
and participial phrase are used in the same way.
They describe noun or
pronoun.
They tell which
one, what kind, or how many about noun or pronoun they
describe.
Adjective clause begins with
relative pronoun (who, whose, whom, which, or that).
•
He was the
teacher (who inspired me).
•
She is the
student (whose habits I emulate)
•
Now is the time (when
we must study)
•
It is a class [(that)
I enjoy. (The introductory “that” can be omitted.]
Sometimes if the meaning is
still clear, the introductory word maybe left out.
Sometimes a word where
or when can be used instead of relative pronoun.
It makes no difference. If
the clause describes a noun, it is still an adjective clause.
Adjective dependent clauses
that are not necessary to the meaning of the sentence are set off by commas.
•
The little girl,
who is eight, is adorable. (Adjective)
There
are two different types of relative clause:
The trees that line Main Street
David Marchand
, whom I find unbearable, has been assigned to my team.
The primary function
of the clause determines the punctuation: to restrict the class of the noun it
modifies, of simply to add information about the clause. There are two types of
adjective clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.
1. A "defining" or identifying clause, or restrictive adjective clause which
tells us which person or thing we are talking about.
Ristrictive adjective clauses: no
commas, Although
all adjective modify nouns, some adjective clauses serve mainly to identify or define
noun -in other words, to distinguish
that noun from all other in its class. If the clause serves this purpose, it is
called restrictive.
The trees that line Main Street
If the
adjective clause that line Main street
Many tourists who have ridden the elevators to
the observation deck have enjoyed an unforgettable view of famous Manhattan
The room that John found himself in
was very large and dark.
2. A "non-defining" or non-essential clause or nonrestrictive adjective clause, which
gives us more information about the person or thing we are talking about. This
kind of clause could often be information included in brackets (...)
Example:
The farmer (his name was Fred) sold us
some potatoes.
The farmer, whose name was Fred, sold us
some potatoes.
Nonrestrictive adjective clauses:
commas. When the adjective clause is used primarily to provide
additional information about the noun, the adjective clause is considered
nessential for identifying the noun.
This type of adjective clause is called nonrestrictive
because it does not serve to restrict the class to which the noun belongs.
Nonrestrictive adjective clauses require commas.
Dvid Marchand, whom I find unbearable,
has been assigned to my team.
In this
Sentence, "whom I find unbearable" does not serve to identify the
subject. The name David Marchand clearly identifies this person and distinguishes
him from anyone else. Generally speaking, when the noun modified is a proper
noun, the adjective clause modifying it is non restrictive and must be set off
with commas. If the noun is not a proper noun-that is, if it is a common noun
(such as tree) that has been identified earlier in the context-then its
adjective clause will most likely be nonrestrictive, functioning merely to add
information about the noun.
John
Lennon was a member of the rock group the Beatles until it disbanded in the
early 1970s. This talented musician, who was loved by millions, was murdered in
New York City
In this passage, the adjective clause
who was loved by million's modifies this talented musician-a common noun
phrase-but that common noun phrase was identified in the previous sentence. The
adjective clause does not help to identify this talented musician and therefore
needs commas.
Special note: That to introduce adjective clauses
That is always used in restrictive clauses,
therefore’ that adjective clauses are not set off by commas.
It is important to see the difference
between the two types of clause, as it affects:
a. the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause,
b. the punctuation - you must use commas
with a non-defining clause.
RELATIVE CLAUSE
WHERE TO PUT THE PREPOSTITION IN A
RELATIVE CLAUSE
There are often prepositions in relative
clauses, and the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition. This
means that the preposition can sometimes be omitted.
1. The preposition is normally placed at
the end of the relative clause:
Is that the man (who) you arrived with?
Do you know the girl (that) John is
talking to?
2. In formal or written English, the
preposition is often placed before
the relative pronoun, and in this case
the pronoun cannot be omitted:
The person with whom he is negotiating is the Chairman of a
large company.
It is a society to which many important people belong.
However, this is unusual in spoken
English.
Examples:
The jungle the elephant lived in was full of strange and unusual animals.
He was very fond of the mouse that he lived with.
The tree under which they had their home was the largest and oldest in the
jungle.
l In the middle of the jungle was a
river that all the
animals went to every day.
l It was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse
preferred to swim.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
The information in these clauses is not
essential. It tells us more about
someone or something, but it does not
help us to identify them or it.
Compare:
1. Elephants that love mice are
very unusual. (This tells us which elephants
we are talking about).
2. Elephants, which are large and grey, can sometimes be found in zoos.
(This gives us some extra information
about elephants - we are talking about
all elephants, not just one type or
group).
3. John's mother, who lives in Scotland
John's mother is, and he only has one.
The important information is the
number of grandchildren, but the fact
that she lives in Scotland
followed with the words "by the
way" - it is additional information).
Punctuation
Non-defining relative clauses are always
separated from the rest of the
sentence by commas. The commas have a
similar function to brackets:
My friend John has just written a
best-selling novel. (He went to the same
school as me)
My friend John, who went to the same school as me, has
just written a best-selling novel.
Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
Person t
Person
Thing Place
Subject who
which
Object Objewho/whom which where
Possessive Pwhose
Notes:
1. In non-defining clauses, you cannot use ‘that’ instead of
who, whom or which.
2. You cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the
object of the verb in the relative clause:
He gave me the letter, which was in a
blue envelope.
He gave me the letter, which I read immediately
3. The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the
clause, e.g. This
is Stratford-on-Avon, which you have all
heard about.
This pattern is often used in spoken
English, but in written or formal English
you can also put the preposition before
the pronoun: e.g. Stratford-on-Avon,
about which many people have written is
Shakespeare’s birthplace.
4. Non-defining clauses can be introduced by expressions like all of, many of
+ relative pronoun:
Person Thing
Person
Thing
all of + whom
+ which
any of + whom
+ which
(a) few of +
whom + which
both of + whom +
which
each of + whom +
which
either of +
whom + which
half of + whom +
which
many of + whom +
which
most of + whom +
which
much of + whom +
which
none of + whom +
which
one of + whom +
which
two of etc… +
whom + which
Examples:
a. There were a lot of people at the
party, many of whom I had known for
years.
b. He was carrying his belongings, many of which were broken.
5. The relative pronoun which
at the beginning of a non-defining relative
clause, can refer to all the information
contained in the previous part of the
sentence, rather than to just one word.
a. Chris did really well in his exams, which was a big surprise. (= the fact
that he did well in his exams was a big
surprise).
b. An elephant and a mouse fell in love,
which is most unusual. (= the fact
that they fell in love is unusual).
Examples:
a. My grandmother, who is dead now,
came from the North of England.
b. I spoke to Fred, who explained
the problem.
c. The elephant looked at the tree, under
which she had often sat.
d. We stopped at the museum, which
we’d never been into.
e. She’s studying maths, which
many people hate.
f. I’ve just met Susan, whose
husband works in London
g. He had thousands of books, most
of which he had read.
A REVIEW OF ADJECTIVE CIAUSES.
The subordinators who, whom, that, whose, and which
can function either as the subject or as the object of an adjective clause.
Compare:
S V
The Empire State
Building , which is the second tallest
building in New York City
O S V
The Empire State
Building , which many tourists visit each
year, is the second :tallest building in New York .
If the subordinator functions as the subject
of an affective clause, its verb agrees in number with the noun that the
subordinator refers to:
S V
Mr.
Jones, who is a marvelous cook, invited us to dinner.
S V
Bill
and Eva Failla, who are members of the Audubon Social Club, are avid birdwatchers.
If the subordinator functions as an object
in the adjective clause, the verb in the adjective clause agrees in number with
its subject:
O s v
The
house that you are thinking about buying has already been sold.
David
Marchand, whom I find unbearable, has been assigned to my team.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE SUBORDINATORS
1. Who is used when referring to a
person. Who is used as the subject of
the adjective clause:
The
little girl is playing the violin. The girl is my cousin.
The
little girl who is playing the violin
is my cousin.
2. whom is also used when referring to
a person , but whom is used as an object in the adjective clause:
My
Uncle Boris is a writer. You met him earlier today.
My
Uncle Boris, whom you met earlier
today, is a writer.
3. Whose is used to show possession and
functions as a pronoun in the adjective clause:
The
artist is coming to our area soon. You adore his paintings.
The
artist, whose paintings you adore, is coming to our area soon.
4. which is used when referring to
something other than a person.
which can function as the subject or object of an
adjective clause;
He
has hideous eyes. These eyes are also colorless.
= He
has hideous eyes which are also colorless.
You
see the books here. These books are special.
=These
books which you see here are special.
5. That can be used when referring to a person, an
animal, or a thing.
That can function as the subject or the object of an
adjective clause.
I
have really enjoyed the book. You gave me the book for my birthday.
= I
have really enjoyed the book that you gave me for my birthday.
The
trees are going to be cut down soon. The trees line Main street .
: The
trees that line Main Street
(Also:
The trees that are going to be cut down soon line Main street .
6. when means approximately "in which
time" or “at which time.”
Note the word order in this clause: When
+ subject +verb.
My
friends are still talking about the day. On that day I fell in the river.
= My
friends are still talking about the day when I felt in the river.
7. Where can be used to mean
approximately “at which place” and
introduces the adjective clause: The word order is Where
+ subject + verb.
Tourists
in New Orleans
visit the old Mint. At that place United States
currency
used to be made.
=
Tourists in New Orleans visit the old Mint where
United states
8. why means "for which" when
used to introduce an adjective clause: Again, the word order is why +
subject + verb.
You
have not given me any reason why I should go out with you.
ADVERB CLAUSE
Adverb dependent clause begins with subordinating
conjunctions.
After as though although as as if as
long as as soon as
because before if in order that provided that
since so that such
that than though unless
until when whenever where wherever while
•
Sometime adverb
clauses are elliptical or incomplete, but the complete thought still there in
the reader’s mind.
•
The boy studied [as
though he were inspired]. Adverb clause describe the verb
•
The student was
miserable [when he felled] Adverb clause describe the predicate
adjective miserable
•
[When studying], he could concentrate. The adverb elliptical clause
while he was studying describes the verb.
The adverb dependent clause,
the adverb, and infinitive phrase used as an adverb all works the same.
They describe a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb.
They will tell how, when,
where, why, to what extent, and under what conditions.
When an adverb dependent
clause begins a sentence, it is followed by a comma.
•
Examples:
•
When we go to
town, we always spend a lot of money. (Adverb)
General Time Clauses
The term clause refers to a part of a sentence that has a subject and a
verb. An
Independent
or main clause is a complete
sentence by itself. A dependent clause,however, cannot stand alone. Even though
a dependent clause has a subject anda verb, it must be connected to a main
clause.
Main Clause
Time clause
The teacher doesn’t like to
stop when she's in the middle
of a lesson.
Time Clause
Time Clause shows
when or in what situation another action takes place. Time Clause in the
simple present tense talk about general situations.
When students get to class late, they have to wait for permission to enter.
When do students have to wait
for permission to enter?
Students can apologize for
being late as soon as the class is over.
When can students apologize
to the teacher for being late?
A time clause can come before or after the main clause. The most
important or the new information usually comes at the end of the sentence. When
a time clause goes before the main clause, there must be a comma after the time clause.
What does a student in your
country do when he is late to class?
When a student is late, he usually knocks on the classroom door.
When does a student knock on
the classroom door?
He knocks on the door when he is late to class.
A time clause is not a complete sentence. It is connected to the main
clause with a time word. Some examples of time words are before, after, when, as soon as, and whenever.
MAIN CLAUSE
|
TIME CLAUSE
|
Subject + Verb + rest of clause
|
time word + subject + verb + rest of clause
|
American students never knock
They apologize to the teacher
Students don’t say anything
They usually try to find a seat
I feel very embarrassed
|
before they
enter a classroom.
after the class
is over.
when they come
into class late. (at that time)
as soon as they
get to class. (immediately after)
whenever I am
late for class. (every time)
|
Adverbial Clauses of Time
Time sequence is conveyed by
terms like after, first, then, and until, followed by noun phrases or time
expressions. although these expressions help to achieve coherence in chronologically
developed paragraphs, amore sophisticated technique for achieving coherence
involves adverbial clauses of time.
Like adverbials, adverb clause
when, where, how, how often, and why; they can also indicate contrast or concession.
When you are writing chronologically developed paragraphs, you will probably
use adverbial clauses of time more often than the other types of adverbial clauses.
Before discussing adverbial
clauses, we should review some terms:
Clause A
clause is a group of words consisting of at least a subject and verb.
Independent clause An
independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Dependent
clause Although a dependent
clause has a subject and verb, it cannot stand alone because it does not
express a complete thought.
Dependent
clauses begin with such words as because, since, although, after, when,
before, while, whereas, who, and why
Dependent clauses must be attached to independent clauses.
Subordinator, subordinating conjunction- These terms
refer to adverbials that make a clause dependent, such as when, because, although.
Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses and must be attached
to an independent clause. Adverbial clauses can come at the beginning or at the
end of the independent clause. Look at these examples:
Subordinate + S + V ,
S + V
Before he leaves for
the office, he always reads the newspaper
S + V Subordinate
+ S + V
He always reads the newspaper before he leaves for the office.
Note that when the adverbial clause comes at the beginning
of the sentence, it is often followed by a comma. However, if it comes at the
end, there is no comma separating it from the independent clause.
The adverbial clause is used to make the relationship
between two clauses clearer and tighter. An adverbial clause of time clarifies
and tightens the time relationship of two clauses.
For example, look at the time relationship between these
sentences:
First I go
to the store. Then
I go home
To make this passage flow more smoothly and to tighten the
relationship of the actions, these two clauses can be combined, making one an adverbial
clause and leaving one an independent clause:
After I go to the store, I go home.
Note how the author uses adverbial clauses of time in the
paragraph about scary experience:
It was nearly dark when my two brothers and arrived at the
Ranger Station.
As the ranger was issuing us our camping permit, he warned us
to be careful of bears.
After we had put on our hiking boots and adjusted our backpacks,
we set off down the nearest trail.
Adverbial clauses of time,
however, do not express just time alone; they Express time in relation to the
independent clause in the sentence. The Time in the adverbial clause of time
can occur simultaneously with, before, or after the time in the independent
clause. Let us review the time sequence in adverbial clauses of time.
1. While, as, during the time that, when, whenever.
The adverbial
clause subordinators listed here indicate that the action in
the adverbial clause occurs during the same time period as the action in the
independent clause.
While, as These subordinators often indicate that an action is in progress;
therefore, the progressive tenses are frequently used with them. When the
progressive is used in this adverbial clause, the simple tenses (simple
present, simple past) are often used in the
independent clauses.
As the ranger was
issuing us our permit, he warned us of the bears.
As I am sitting
there at the table, I look around for a way to escape.
I held the flashlight
while my brothers were setting up the ten.
During the time that- This expression is similar to while and when.
Both the progressive and simple tenses can be used with this
expression, depending on the action conveyed.
During the time that
we remained in the tent, I was very frightened.
When- This
subordinator indicates a point in time or a repeated or habitual occurrence;
therefore, the simple tenses are generally used with it. Sometimes, however,
the progressive tenses are used with it when it is used to mean "while."
It was dark when my
two brothers and I arrived at the station.
Whenever- Unlike
the other subordinates in this group, whenever usually takes only the simple
tenses because it indicates a repeated or habitual action. (It means "each
time that, every time that.")
Whenever you call my
name, I come running to you.
Sometimes whenever
can indicate that the action in the independent clause is future but is
expected to be repeated.
Whenever you call me
up, I will come over immediately.
2. Before, after. These subordinators are
used to indicate that the time in the adverbial clause occurs before or after
the action in the independent clause.
After we had put on
our hiking boots, we set off down the trail. (First we put
on our boots. After that we set off down the trail.)
Before we set off down
the trail, we put on our hiking boots.
Before the parade
begins, the people stroll in the street.
In sentences like the
first two, where there are two past actions and a sequence is established, the
past perfect tense (had + past participle) can be used to indicate the earlier
of the two actions. However, it is common practice to use the simple past tense
in the adverbial clause.
After we put on our
hiking boots, we set off down the trail.
3. Until, till, up to the time that. These
subordinators indicate that the time in the adverbial clause signals the end of
the time in the independent clause.
I stayed in my tent
until it was light outside. (Then she left the tent.)
"You cannot go outside until you finish your spinach," the mother told her child.
4. Since,ever since, from the moment (time) that.
These subordinators are used to indicate that the action in the independent
clause began at the moment indicated in the adverbial clause and continues in
the present. The simple past is usually used in the adverbial clause; the perfect
tenses are used in the independent clause.
Ever since I was a
child, I have had the tendency to get angry easily.
From the moment I
first saw her, I have been in love with her.
5. As soon As, the moment that, when, once
These subordinators are used to
indicate that the action in the independent clause will take place upon completion of the action in the
adverbial clause. wben is used less frequently in this way;
if you want to make it clear that the action in the independent clause will
take place right after the action in the adverbial clause, use as
soon as or the moment that.
As soon as we arrived
at a small clearing, we began to set up camp.
I turn on the television set the moment that I get home.
Once I arrive in Hong
Kong, I am going to visit my friend’s parents.
Note: Once can also be used to mean "after."
Special Verb Tense Note
In adverbial clause
of time, the present tense is used even though the time indicated is future:
Before you begin
to write your paper, you need to think about it.
I am going to stay here until he arrives.
We are giving him a party after he returns from Japan .
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